Heute morgen waren wir mit Jorik das erste Mal im Zoo. Naja, der Begriff Zoo mag für den Vogelpark Westerstede ein klein wenig übertrieben gewählt sein, aber es gibt da Tiere - und wie der Name schon vermuten lässt meist Vögel. Wenn man will, sind da sogar wilde und gefährliche Tiere - denn Gänse haben sie auch.

Um zum in der Überschrift erwähnten Thema zurückzukommen: Auf einmal war die Speicherkarte kaputt, die Bildanzahlanzeige meiner DSLR blinkte nur mit einem großen "E" wie Error, Ersatzkarte natürlich nicht dabei und die schööööenen Bilder von vorhin - sind die wirklich alle im digitalen Nirvana gelandet? Im fototechnischen /dev/null-Ordner? Nichts half - Karte rein, Karte raus, Kamera an, Kamera aus, fluchen, beten, wimmern... alles zwecklos.

Für mich war der Ausflug launetechnisch gegessen...

Auch zuhause am PC war die Karte nicht zum Leben zu erwecken. Tante G. gab einige Tipps für kommerzielle Rettungsprogramme, die aber alle, zumindest in der Demoversion, nichts reelles bewirkten.  Als allerletztes hab ich dann noch PhotoRec ausprobiert, OpenSource und GPL. Die simple Shell-Oberfläche hab ich gestartet, einige Angaben per Tastatur gemacht und dann zählte der hoch... 1 Datei gerettet,  2 Dateien gerettet usw. Juhu!

Also... Hammertool, sollte man unbedingt für Notfälle schon im Voraus auf der Festplatte haben HIER GEHTS ZUM DOWNLOAD

Voher hab ich die Speicherkarte noch formattiert (nur im Quickformat).

Einige, wenige Aufnahmen sind zwar wirklich weg, aber das Gros der Bilder ist noch da.  Und, obwohl es nur ein paar Schnappschüsse waren, um einige Bilder wäre es auch schade gewesen.

Jetzt hab ich die Karte nochmal richtig formatiert und sie scheint wieder zu funktionieren. Trotzdem bestell ich mir gleich noch ein paar kleine Karten.

You have many options with prims in Second Life, and it all about “prim-optimising”.
No need to use many prims, if you just know the technique of how to handle your prims (or have a PrimFinder).

PrimFinder is created by CrystalGadget - resident ”Anthony Hocken”
Price: 290 L$
SLURL – Click here to visit CrystalGadget in Second Life

I was looking for some music with "Gadget" - lol - just if you wondering about the cartoon music (this music bring up some memories from my childhood and "InspectorGadget"). he

Keyword or Tag List Delimiter Changer

A boa notícia é que, após dois anos sem produzirem novas faixas (o ano de 2007 foi marcado por uma turnê quase mundial), o quinteto da Red Sparowes lançará, no próximo dia 1 de agosto, o EP Aphorism (Sargent House), com três músicas. Muita gente questionou o porquê de não terem soltado logo um novo álbum. Outros alegaram que a banda estaria em crise criativa e o EP viria em boa hora para quebrar a ansiedade de um público que realmente acompanha o trabalho dos músicos.

Hipóteses a parte, Aphorism é, provavelmente, um pouco mais pesado que os primeiros cds da banda. As guitarras estão mais altas e a bateria aposta em viradas mais constantes e no pedal duplo. Apesar disso, o EP mantém a construção das músicas em camadas, com a bateria marcial de David Clifford, e continua, felizmente, criando a atmosfera envolvente dos trabalhos da Red Sparowes.

Uma das três faixas, “We Left To Rot But Find The Fang Grows Within”, com pouco mais de seis minutos, pode ser ouvida no myspace do grupo. O tempo das músicas, por sinal, mostra já uma diferenciação com as enormes faixas dos dois primeiros álbuns. Aqui, o tempo médio é de cerca de seis minutos.

O resultado é bom, todas as faixas concisas, bem trabalhadas e muito densas, algo que parece levar a crer, numa primeira audição, que Aphorism pode ser das melhores coisas já produzidas pelo quinteto. A levada soundscape dos reverbs, contrastando com eventuais momentos de metal, como de costume, continuam. A parceria com o engenheiro de som Toshi Kasai, que trabalhou com Tool, Melvins e outras, segundo os membros da Red Sparowes, foi fundamental para a criação desse EP.

De acordo com entrevista concedida à imprensa estrangeira, o baterista Clifford explicou que os títulos das músicas do EP são ligados a um contexto mais amplo, que será explorado no próximo álbum. Temática essa que envolve a necessidade humana da criação de um consenso, o avanço tecnológico e a existência do erro.

Por causa dessa faixa disponível no myspace, a banda já fechou contrato para tocar em grandes festivais do verão europeu, como Eurockeenne’s Festival, na França, e o SuperSonic Festival, na Inglaterra. Na Bélgica eles tocam com a Battles. Depois é a vez do Wicker Park Festival, em Chicago, quando dividem o palco com a também norte-americana Isis.

Conforme informam no myspace, o grupo deve lançar o EP em formato vinil e em cd, com alguns extras, provavelmente músicas antigas da banda.

Aphorism:

1 - We Left the Apes to Rot, but Find the Fang Still Grows Within
2 – Error Has Turned Animals Into Men, and to Each The Fold Repeats
3 - The Fear Is Excruciating, but Therein Lies the Answer

]]> http://techpaul.wordpress.com/?p=846 Sat, 05 Jul 2008 18:52:28 +0000 techpaul http://techpaul.wordpress.com/?p=846 Yesterday A few weeks ago I attended an event at Microsoft's Silicon Valley Research Center and learned about the technologies of the future.

Well, sort of. What I saw was an overview of what Microsoft is doing in the area of R&D-- research and development.
Microsoft is planning on sticking around for a while, and they understand that technology is innovation... not a stagnant build-it-once-sell-it-a-million-times type thing, like a paperclip.

This from their Website: "Microsoft Research is dedicated to conducting both basic and applied research in computer science and software engineering. Its goals are to enhance the user experience on computing devices, reduce the cost of writing and maintaining software, and invent novel computing technologies."

It was an interesting and informative event, and I want to take a minute and thank those folks involved.

* The keynote technology displayed was a program that is available now, and it is pretty amazing -- especially when one considers the amount of data that must be accessed -- it's a virtual picture of the universe. And the best part is, you can explore it.
Yes, you can fly to Mars... or Rigel.. or the crab nebula.. or the top of Mt. Rainier here on earth (Virtual Earth is one data source).

"A state-of-the-art combination of software and Web 2.0 services, WorldWide Telescope offers terabytes of high-resolution images, astronomical data, and guided tours that bring the universe to your fingertips." (again, from Website.)

This isn't just pictures folks, when you right-click on Mars (for example) and select Properties, you will be offered practically every known fact about Mars. This is an unparalleled learning tool!

The engine behind this is kind of hard to explain; maybe.. real-time, super-advanced PowerPoint? Infinite MSN Maps?
But I don't have to try to explain it. You can see it for yourself, and I highly suggest you do. Simply stunning.

To read more about the project, click here.
To download it for yourself, click here.

I found this clip which was a "sneak peak" presented by Roy Gould and Microsoft's Curtis Wong. It will give you some idea...

*Original posting May 23, 2008.

Copyright 2007-8 © Tech Paul. All rights reserved. post to jaanix

Share this post :

Experience required : 15 years experience in Production/ Training Department of a Tool Room/ reputed Engineering Industry of which 10 years in a responsible technology/ Management position.
Perferable: Implementation & Management of Engineering projects, Experience in use of computerized MIS including reverse engineering, Rapid Prototyping, CAD/CAM & CNC Technologies etc. Experience in Administration & Labour Management

Indo German Tool Room (IGTR), Ahmedabad has been set up under Technical collaboration Programme between the Government of India, State Government-Gujarat and Government of Germany. The Tool Room is a Government of India Society, registered under Societies Registration Act and is functioning as autonomous body under Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises, Government of India. The main objectives of the Tool Room are to provide support services to the micro, small & medium industries for development and manufa cture of precision tools, moulds, dies, fixtures & equipments; consultancy services and skilled manpower with hands on exposure to the state of the art machinery in the area of tool engineering.
The General Manager, being the Executive Head of IGTR, shall be responsible for day-to-day management and affairs of the Society and shall exercise his powers under the direction, superintendence and control of the Chairman of the Governing Council. It shall be the duty of the General Manager to co-ordinate and exercise general supervision over all the activities of the IGTR,
Applications are invited from citizens of India for the post of General Manager (Scale of pay : Rs. 16400-450-20000) in INDO GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD, which is proposed to be filled up on contract basis for a period of 5 years initially with further extension based on the review of performance. The details regarding eligibility condition etc. are as under :-
Educational Qualification
a. Essential: Degree in Mecnanica'/ Production Engg. or equivalent from a recognized University/ Institution.
b. Desirable : Post Graduate qualification in Engineering/ Technology/ Management from recognized Institution.
Experience:
15 years experience in Production/ Training Department of a Tool Room/ reputed Engineering Industry of which 10 years in a responsible technology/ Management position.
Perferable: Implementation & Management of Engineering projects, Experience in use of computerized MIS including reverse engineering, Rapid Prototyping, CAD/CAM & CNC Technologies etc. Experience in Administration & Labour Management.
Scale of pay: : Rs. 16400-450-20000. The post besides basic pay, carries allowances as per government rules.
Age : Below 50 years (relaxable upto 5 years for SC/ST/Internal candidates and 3 years for OBC candidates).
Duration of Appointment The appointment will be made on contract basis for a period of 5 years initially with further extension based on review of perf ormance.

Apply Details:

Applications in duplicate, indicating the name of the applicant, date ot birth, SC/ST or General, permanent address, complete address for correspondence, details of educational qualification & experience, stating the name of organization served, post held, salary drawn, nature of job, current salary alongwith a recent passport size photograph should be sent at the following address within 30 days from the date of publication of this advertisement.
A brief self-assessment regarding the suitability tor the post should also be enclosed by the applicants. Applicants must also enclose attested copies of certificates and date of birth with their application. Incomplete application would be rejected. Persons working in Government, Quasi-Government or public sector should apply through proper channel with advance copy. Giving false information arid canvassing in any manner will render the applicant ineligible for the ppst. For further details refer our website : www.igtrahd. com/ career Applications, alongwith all enclosures, may be sent to the "Industrial Advisor (Tool Room), Office of the Development Commissioner(MSME), 7th Floor,AWing,Nirman Bhavan,Maulana Azad Road, New Delhi-110 108.

Street View matches photos of locations to maps, including passers-by who were captured as the photograph was taken. Privacy International, a UK rights group, believes the technology breaks data protection laws.

"In our view they need a person's consent if they make use of a person's face for commercial ends," said Simon Davis of the group.

Street View has already been launched in the US and includes photos of streets in major American cities. Photographing of areas in the UK, including London, is believed to have started this week. Some individuals in the US have complained about their images being used and Google has said it removed their presence on request. The company has said it had begun to trial face blurring technology, using an algorithm that detects human faces in photographs.

Jon

As the summer rolls in we're set for another season of music festivals. While festivals are a great place to see bands you wouldn't have normally seen and to discover new acts I've always felt that the only real place to see your favourite bands play are at their own gigs. Nothing quite beats the atmosphere at a small venue created by an audience who are all there to see the headline act.

With this article I thought I'd say what my favourite live acts have been and who I recommend catching live as they pass through your town. Whatever you do, don't miss out on the following five bands.

First up is Tool. Seeing Tool is quite a unique experience. The band aren't typical in the way that they take the stage at all, with singer Maynard James Keenan standing near the back of the stage, leaving a large open space at the front. Tool are notoriously publicity shy and prefer for their music to take centre stage. They've only made personal appearances in two of their eight music videos to date.

The same is certainly true of their live show. They use impressive lighting displays and a laser show for visuals and it really works. The band also use a large video screen that plays animations themed to the songs. The clips used aren't tracked to the music at all, but on their most recent tour were taken from over six hours of footage and played differently each night. Tool's guitarist, Adam Jones, creates all of the art and animations for the band and he does an amazing job.

The visual aspect of seeing Tool is almost as good as the fantastic music they play and I would certainly recommend seeing them as you won't see another band like it.

Next vote for me is The Smashing Pumpkins. I would mainly recommend them as they play their songs so well but are not afraid to change things up and play entirely different versions from what is on the album. I've seen them four times now and every show has been entirely different. The band will breathe life into old songs by playing new and different version on each tour. Some songs are extended out into longer jams and you can see how Billy Corgan intended them to be before they were reduced in length for recording.

The Pumpkins are also an amazing band at changing the mood of the show and building it back up. At their loudest they rock as hard as any other band I've seen, but then in the same show can play mellow acoustic songs just as well. I think that the depth of their back catalogue helps them live as they have such a wealth of different songs to choose from. A great band live and one that can really pull of playing a large venue better than anyone I've seen.

Next band I recommend you go see if you haven't already is Muse. They have won nine awards for best live act since 2001, and for good reason. I don't think I've ever seen a band play with such energy and command a large audience so well. I've only seen them twice and the most recent time was a few years ago now, so I'm definitely going to catch them on their next tour. They're kings of overblown rock at the moment and their songs lend themselves so well to the live environment. A definite must-see no mater what kind of rock you listen to.

Everyone that plays guitar needs to go and see Steve Vai play live. It was a tough choice to pick between the Steve Vai band and Dream Theater for my 'musicianship' slot but I think Dr Vai just edges it. Considerably more animated, interesting and lively to watch than Dream Theater, seeing Steve Vai live is like nothing else.

He always takes the most phenomenal musicians on the road with him and seeing his band play his music is quite amazing. The fact that Vai does it all with lasers on his fingers while playing a triple neck guitar makes it all the more mind boggling.

Vai is also of the few musicians I've seen that can pull off really heavy rock with crazy solos before bringing it down to the most subtle of ballads with a convincing degree of conviction. Don't miss seeing Steve Vai as you will never see a show quite like it.

Quite often when you see a metal band play live they're awful. It is a difficult genre to play well, the instruments must be played to perfection or you have a big mess of indistinguishable noise. Singers in heavy bands can sound really terrible live as well as they struggle to replicate what's on the album and will often sound worse as the show goes on.

Not so for Gothenburg band In Flames. They play their material to perfection and Anders Frinden is the best metal vocalist I've seen live. Never missing a note, never dropping out he sounded like he could go on all day. Quite an achievement if you know In Flames' material. Combine the excellent performance with pyrotechnics, fireworks, a huge lighting rig and an energetic band and you have a winning combination. An excellent band live and I can't wait until I see them again later in the year.

I would recommend going to as many live shows as you can, even in genres of music you wouldn't normally consider as you can end up seeing something really good that you may have missed otherwise. Certainly as a musician seeing a live band can give you so many ideas for your own playing and your own shows. I know I've stolen a lot of ideas from seeing bands live.

If you get the chance to see any of these bands live then I definitely recommend it, if you don't see them then you're really missing out on a great experience.

With this article I thought I'd say what my favourite live acts have been and who I recommend catching live as they pass through your town. Whatever you do, don't miss out on the following five bands.

First up is Tool. Seeing Tool is quite a unique experience. The band aren't typical in the way that they take the stage at all, with singer Maynard James Keenan standing near the back of the stage, leaving a large open space at the front. Tool are notoriously publicity shy and prefer for their music to take centre stage. They've only made personal appearances in two of their eight music videos to date.

The same is certainly true of their live show. They use impressive lighting displays and a laser show for visuals and it really works. The band also use a large video screen that plays animations themed to the songs. The clips used aren't tracked to the music at all, but on their most recent tour were taken from over six hours of footage and played differently each night. Tool's guitarist, Adam Jones, creates all of the art and animations for the band and he does an amazing job.

The visual aspect of seeing Tool is almost as good as the fantastic music they play and I would certainly recommend seeing them as you won't see another band like it.

Next vote for me is The Smashing Pumpkins. I would mainly recommend them as they play their songs so well but are not afraid to change things up and play entirely different versions from what is on the album. I've seen them four times now and every show has been entirely different. The band will breathe life into old songs by playing new and different version on each tour. Some songs are extended out into longer jams and you can see how Billy Corgan intended them to be before they were reduced in length for recording.

The Pumpkins are also an amazing band at changing the mood of the show and building it back up. At their loudest they rock as hard as any other band I've seen, but then in the same show can play mellow acoustic songs just as well. I think that the depth of their back catalogue helps them live as they have such a wealth of different songs to choose from. A great band live and one that can really pull of playing a large venue better than anyone I've seen.

Next band I recommend you go see if you haven't already is Muse. They have won nine awards for best live act since 2001, and for good reason. I don't think I've ever seen a band play with such energy and command a large audience so well. I've only seen them twice and the most recent time was a few years ago now, so I'm definitely going to catch them on their next tour. They're kings of overblown rock at the moment and their songs lend themselves so well to the live environment. A definite must-see no mater what kind of rock you listen to.

Everyone that plays guitar needs to go and see Steve Vai play live. It was a tough choice to pick between the Steve Vai band and Dream Theater for my 'musicianship' slot but I think Dr Vai just edges it. Considerably more animated, interesting and lively to watch than Dream Theater, seeing Steve Vai live is like nothing else.

He always takes the most phenomenal musicians on the road with him and seeing his band play his music is quite amazing. The fact that Vai does it all with lasers on his fingers while playing a triple neck guitar makes it all the more mind boggling.

Vai is also of the few musicians I've seen that can pull off really heavy rock with crazy solos before bringing it down to the most subtle of ballads with a convincing degree of conviction. Don't miss seeing Steve Vai as you will never see a show quite like it.

Quite often when you see a metal band play live they're awful. It is a difficult genre to play well, the instruments must be played to perfection or you have a big mess of indistinguishable noise. Singers in heavy bands can sound really terrible live as well as they struggle to replicate what's on the album and will often sound worse as the show goes on.

Not so for Gothenburg band In Flames. They play their material to perfection and Anders Frinden is the best metal vocalist I've seen live. Never missing a note, never dropping out he sounded like he could go on all day. Quite an achievement if you know In Flames' material. Combine the excellent performance with pyrotechnics, fireworks, a huge lighting rig and an energetic band and you have a winning combination. An excellent band live and I can't wait until I see them again later in the year.

I would recommend going to as many live shows as you can, even in genres of music you wouldn't normally consider as you can end up seeing something really good that you may have missed otherwise. Certainly as a musician seeing a live band can give you so many ideas for your own playing and your own shows. I know I've stolen a lot of ideas from seeing bands live.

If you get the chance to see any of these bands live then I definitely recommend it, if you don't see them then you're really missing out on a great experience.

TheSage's English Dictionary and Thesaurus, sebuah paket aplikasi yang terintegrasi dengan database yang berisi definisi, sinonim, antonim, dll mengenai kata bahasa Inggris. Ya, hampir sama dengan kamus saku oxford yang dulu pernah menemaniku (sekarang di mana tuh kamus ya). Selain itu, aplikasi ini juga menyertakan contoh-contoh penggunaan kata dalam sebuah kalimat. Dulu ketika pertama kali aku mendapatkan informasi mengenai aplikasi ini (kalo ga salah dari salah satu majalah komputer, lupa namanya), belum tersedia versi online-nya, eee ternyata sekarang sudah ada juga versi online-nya, mo nyaingin askoxford nih? Namun terlepas dari itu, salut untuk Sequence Publishing yang memang fokus pada pengembangan program bahasa untuk pendidikan dan penelitian. Maju terus!!!

(Click to enlarge)

Sampai sekarang aplikasi ini mencakup lebih dari 145.000 referensi kata dengan cabang detail definisi lebih dari 200.000 kata serta 1.200.000 hubungan antar definisi (sinonim, antonim, hipernim, hiponim, ...). Contoh penggunaan kata di dalam kalimat mencapai ±35.000 buah. Hasil pencarian kata ditampilkan secara terstruktur (dapat kita customize) dan yang pasti 100% free of charge alias manfaatkan sepuas-puasnya tanpa ancaman pelanggaran HAKI.

(Click to enlarge)

Tertarik untuk mencoba aplikasi yang satu ini? Silahkan download di sini.

Features

-RC4 En/Decrypting

That's all

Stay Tuned! Visit: http://www.reddor.6x.to

Download

Es la clásica historia del tipo cartoon, en la que un tipo se despierta al más mismo intento del inspector gadget y, tecnificando la situación, resulta que hay una intensa maquinaria a la que sólo le basta con un ligero toque de botón para ponerse en marcha, y engranar una cadena a la hora del baño:

Claro, si tomamos en cuenta que cuando el tipo sale del baño nos revelan que todo era un espejismo creado por el maravilloso nuevo producto, la cosa todavía se cae más.

¿Será cosa de cliente? O simplemente mi gusto publicitario y consumista es un tanto más exigente que la pieza que arriba veo.

No, definitivamente no. Se trata de una cosa mucho más sencilla: Axe nos ha mal educado a publicidad perfecta, genial, inteligente y sinceramente, lo que BBH Nueva York está pautando actualmente no tiene el nivel acostumbrado. La buena publicidad exige mejor publicidad, y éso es algo que todos sabemos, aunque la mayoría lo maneja como se le da la gana.

The Tuning: Drop D

The Riff:

The Video:

Back to Riff of the Week     |     Back to Blog Map

Ein Spambot!

Features

-Frei wählbares Interval zw. Tastenanschlägen

-Die Funktion jede Taste einzeln zu drücken

-Aktive Hilfe, die Hilfe zu jedem Element zeigt, worunter der Cursor ist

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Dieses Programm veranschaulicht die Arbeitsweise von Computern (auch noch von heutigen) an einzelnen Funktionen. Man kann damit sogar selbst Programmieren, um sich damit die Gedankengänge zu realisieren, die ein Computer zu leisten hat, um z.B. eine einfache Addition auszuführen.

Fals ihr Fragen zum Programm habt, postet diese bitte! Ich werde in den nächsten Tagen eine Hilfe implementieren.

Features

-*.ppc Dateien Verknüpfung

Changelog

+Version 1.0.0
-- Erster Release

+Version 1.1.0
-- VB6STKIT.DLL wird nicht mehr benötigt
-- 'Über' Dialog hinzugefügt

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Stay Tuned! Visit: http://www.reddor.6x.to

Download

According to ExtremeTech the utility, developed by ZDNet Germany, offers Mac users the chance to overclock the processor inside their Intel-based Mac Pro series systems without any hardware modification. Called ZDNet Clock, the utility is similar to overclocking software that has been available for Windows boxes for many years – but marks the first such point-'n-click tool for MacOS users.

Requiring either a Mac Pro or Apple Xserve running MacOS X Leopard, the tool allows for dynamic overclocking of the processor within the system – without increasing the processor or memory voltages. The results are extremely convincing: the team at ZDNet got the cheapest Mac Pro currently available – equipped with a 2.8GHz processor – to outperform the most expensive 3.2GHz model. The price difference between the two? Over £1,100.

The newly-overclocked Mac Pro, now running at 3.4GHz instead of the default 2.8GHz, was subjected to a prime-numbers based torture test for a full day – with no errors reported. While still likely to invalidate your warranty should something go wrong, that's a fairly good indicator that – like Windows-based overclocking tools – sensible use is unlikely to cause any serious problems.

Perhaps the most interesting feature of the tool is that the overclock, which must be done from within MacOS as the Mac Pro series doesn't feature a user-accessible BIOS like standard Intel-based systems, survives not only a reboot back into MacOS but also a boot into a second operating system via the BootCamp functionality.

While use of the utility is entirely at the readers' own risk, if you're looking to get a little more bang for your buck it's certainly worth a go.

Any Mac users fancy giving the tool a try and reporting benchmark results? Share your experiences over in the forums.

How computers work

Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor

A general purpose computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

Control unit

Main articles: CPU design and Control unit

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program one by one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that operate the other parts of the computer.^[13] Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.^[14]

Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.

The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).

It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program - and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.

Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

Main article: Arithmetic logic unit

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").

Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.

Memory

Main article: Computer storage

Magnetic core memory was popular main memory for computers through the 1960s until it was completely replaced by semiconductor memory.

A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is up to the software to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers; either from 0 to 255 or -128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory as long as it can be somehow represented in numerical form. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. Since data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random access memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM is erased when the power to the computer is turned off while ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the software required to perform the task may be stored in ROM. Software that is stored in ROM is often called firmware because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM by retaining data when turned off but being rewritable like RAM. However, flash memory is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM so its use is restricted to applications where high speeds are not required.^[15]

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.

Input/output (I/O)

Main article: Input/output

Hard disks are common I/O devices used with computers.

I/O is the means by which a computer receives information from the outside world and sends results back. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.

Multitasking

Main article: Computer multitasking

While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.

Before the era of cheap computers, the principle use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.

Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly - in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss.

Multiprocessing

Main article: Multiprocessing

Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

Some computers may divide their work between one or more separate CPUs, creating a multiprocessing configuration. Traditionally, this technique was utilized only in large and powerful computers such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. However, multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers have become widely available and are beginning to see increased usage in lower-end markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.^[16] They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.

Networking and the Internet

Main articles: Computer networking and Internet

Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

Further topics

Hardware

Main article: Computer hardware

The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.

Software

Main article: Computer software

Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.

Programming languages

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine language by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.

Professions and organizations

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers. Following the theme of hardware, software and firmware, the brains of people who work in the industry are sometimes known irreverently as wetware or "meatware".

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.